1. Introduction
Tourism is one of the major economic sectors in many countries, contributing significantly to Gross National Income and creating jobs for many people. However, if a country develops tourism while focusing only on profit and ignoring environmental protection, this will lead to fast degradation of the natural environment.
The natural environment plays a fundamental role in sustaining human life and well-being. It provides the essential resources required for life, including air, water, food, and materials for shelter and clothing. Forests and oceans also play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate and maintaining air quality. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing approximately 2.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide each year (Pan et al., 2011: 13-14), while oceans absorb nearly 25% of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions (Friedlingstein et al., 2020). These natural processes help mitigate climate change and reduce the risks of extreme weather events that directly affect human beings. The environment also acts as a buffer against natural disasters, such as floods and storms.
Furthermore, the natural environment also contributes to mental and emotional well-being. Exposure to greenspace is associated with wide-ranging health benefits, such as reducing stress, improving mood, and cognitive development, especially for children (Twohig-Bennett & Jones, 2018: 633-634). Ecosystems also provide cultural, recreational, and spiritual values, fulfil the high levels of human needs.
The environment is the core foundation for human life. Without a healthy natural environment, human societies would struggle to survive. Because of this, protecting the environment is one of the most important duties of individual members in the world. To protect the environment, in recent decades, along with developing tourism, governments have taken care of the environment, try to develop their countries sustainably. In this growing tendency, the term “sustainable tourism” has emerged as a key concern and has drawn considerable interest from countries worldwide. Sustainable tourism is a positive approach intended to reduce the tensions and friction created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, visitors, the environment and the communities which are host to holidaymakers. It is an approach which involves working for the long-term viability and quality of both natural and human resources (Bramwell & Lane, 1993: 2). According to Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC), an international organization which establishes and manages global standards for sustainable travel and tourism: “Sustainable tourism refers to sustainable practices in and by the tourism industry. It is an aspiration to acknowledge all the impacts of tourism, both positive and negative. It aims to minimize the negative impacts and maximize the positive ones” (Global Sustainable Tourism Council, 2023: 32).
The World Tourism Organization (WTO) emphasized that, sustainable tourism should maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst them. WTO also pointed out, achieving sustainable tourism is a continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary (World Tourism Organization, 2005: 11-12).
For protecting the environment and developing tourism sustainably, GSTC had developed basic criteria for tourism sustainability related to environmental, social, cultural, economic, quality, human rights, health, safety, risk and crisis management issues. The first version of the criteria was released in October 2008, and then was revised in 2011. The second version of the criteria was released in March 2012. The third version of GSTC Industry Criteria was released in January 2017 (Global Sustainable Tourism Council, 2023). This third version is still applied until now.
Nowadays, with growing awareness of environmental degradation, many countries worldwide are focusing on environmental protection and moving towards sustainable tourism development.
In Vietnam, sustainable tourism has gained momentum in recent years, especially in high-profile destinations such as Ha Long Bay, Phong Nha-Ke Bang, and Hoi An. Vietnamese government has also introduced several policies to promote sustainable tourism and those focused on restricting development in ecologically sensitive areas and providing incentives for businesses adopting eco-friendly practices (Nguyen Xuan Khanh, 2024). Because of its rich cultural heritage, diverse landscapes, and increasing investment in tourism infrastructure, Vietnam has many potentials to develop tourism. Tourism industry is one of the main components for developing the country, plays a vital role in the national economy. According to National Statistics Office, in the first eight months of 2025, Vietnam has received nearly 14 million international visitors, up 21.7% from the same period last year (Cited in Tourism Information Technology Center, 2025). In 2024, tourism industry contributed over 1%pts to the country’s GDP growth of Vietnam (Kokalari, 2024).
Recently, Vietnamese government has been actively promoted sustainable tourism through multiple initiatives and policies. The government is focusing on preserving natural and cultural heritage, reducing environmental impact, and promoting responsible tourism practices. They are also encouraging eco-friendly accommodation, supporting local communities, and raising awareness of sustainable travel among tourists (Jaeyeon Choe & Giang Phi, 2022). However, there are policy and regulatory gaps in developing sustainable tourism in Vietnam (Nguyen Xuan Khanh, 2024).
In Asian area, South Korea is one of the bright examples for developing sustainable tourism. This country has achieved significant success in sustainable tourism development. From the early 21st century, South Korean government has implemented various key strategies and master plans to develop tourism sustainably in their nation. Along with that, the government has also issued numerous policies and regulations, initiatives to promote sustainable tourism development. Because of that, South Korea currently has established nature-based destinations, such as Jeju Island, the Suncheon Bay Wetland Reserve; many smart tourist cities, including Incheon, Gyeongju, Cheongju, Yeosu, and Daegu… (Research Office, 2025). By analyzing the case of South Korea, the author hopes to draw valuable lessons that can be applied to Vietnam's tourism development process.
2. Research methodology
This paper utilizes a secondary data research method. Drawing on reliable documents from the South Korean government and various organizations and entities within South Korea, along with academic papers, scholarly articles, and scientific reports, economic data, the author has synthesized and analysed South Korea's policies, strategies for sustainable tourism development and their outcomes. Based on South Korean case, the author inferred valuable lessons for developing sustainable tourism in Vietnam.
3. Sustainable tourism in South Korea
With the rapid development of the nation, particularly in the tourism industry in the early 2000s, South Korean government has recognized the need for a sustainable approach to economic growth and development. The government has actively embraced sustainable tourism as a means of balancing tourism development with environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and community wellbeing. They have implemented various initiatives to achieve this balance, to prevent environmental and cultural degradation.
3.1. Policies, strategies and plans for sustainable tourism in South Korea
In South Korea, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism and the Ministry of Environment have played key roles in promoting sustainable tourism through national strategies and integrated planning. And the Korea Tourism Organization (KTO) was established to advance tourism as a key driver for national economic growth and enhancement of national welfare. The vision of KTO is becoming a public organization that makes the Korean people happier, and promotes national wealth through tourism (Korea Tourism Organization).
In August 2008, to protect the environment and foster sustainable national development, Mister President Lee Myung-Bak of South Korea announced the "Low Carbon, Green Growth" strategy as a new national vision for development over the next 60 years. This vision encompassed three specific goals: (1) building a low-carbon society independent of fossil fuels; (2) utilizing green industries as a new engine for economic growth; and (3) making Korea an international role model for green growth (Ministry of Environment, 2009).
To actualize this strategy and achieve its stated goals, the Presidential Committee on Green Growth was established in February 2009. By July of the same year, the government had formulated the first Five-Year Plan for Green Growth. According to this plan, the South Korean government's vision for 2050 is to "shift the growth paradigm from a fossil-fuel-dependent growth paradigm to a quality-oriented growth paradigm with a focus on utilizing clean energy". This plan set three main objectives: mitigating climate change and promoting energy independence; creating new economic growth engines; and improving quality of life and enhancing national prestige. The plan also outlined 10 key policy directions corresponding to these three objectives. To mitigate climate change and promote energy independence, the government introduced measures focusing on reducing carbon emissions, decreasing reliance on imported energy, enhancing energy self-sufficiency, and improving adaptability to the impacts of climate change. For the goal of creating new economic growth engines, South Korea developed green technology as a future growth driver, promoted green industries, developed high-tech sectors, and built policy infrastructure to support green growth. Regarding improving quality of life and national prestige, the government strived to implement strategies such as building green cities, reducing emissions, encouraging green lifestyles, and strengthening international cooperation in green growth (Ministry of Environment, 2009).
To implement the first Five-Year Plan for Green Growth, South Korean government enacted the Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth in January 2010. This law established a comprehensive legal foundation to guide the nation's environmentally friendly development strategies. Additionally, this law also serves as the basis for a series of government regulations, incentive mechanisms, and programs aimed at encouraging both the public and private sectors, as well as Korean citizens and international tourists, to adopt sustainable practices. The Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth also included provisions specifically addressing sustainable tourism. Specifically, Article 56 of this Act stipulates: "The Government shall facilitate eco-tourism by preserving, restoring, and using habitats of flora and fauna, ecologically outstanding natural environmental assets, and unique cultural assets in each locality harmoniously as resources for tourism to boost the regional economy and shall ensure that every citizen can utilize such resources as places for experience and education of ecosystem." (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2010).
Furthermore, in 2010, the South Korean government established the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) to support evidence-based research and policy innovation in sustainable economic and environmental development. During the implementation of the first Five-Year Plan (2009–2013), South Korean government allocated approximately 2% of its annual Gross National Income to green growth programs. This funding was invested in various specific projects, such as: developing green technology, the project for restoring the four major rivers (Han River, Nakdong River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River), emission treatment systems, energy-related tax reforms, and building a green transportation system - encouraging public transport and bicycle use (Ministry of Environment, 2009).
Within the scope of the Five-Year Plan for Green Growth, the South Korean government also clearly defined a long-term strategic direction for national tourism development: expanding ecotourism and green tourism activities and developing and promoting ecotourism products. To foster the development of ecotourism, the government focused on raising public awareness of ecotourism and developing green tourism services. Concurrently, the government established infrastructure for the tourism sector related to organizing meetings, tourism promotion events, conferences, and tourism exhibitions. At the same time, it promoted global publicity for domestic performance programs at international festivals and expanded domestic tourism infrastructure such as information centers and related personnel (Global Green Growth Institute, 2015).
Based on the success of the first Five-Year Plan, South Korea continued to implement the subsequent five-year plans. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic led to the most severe economic crisis in years. To recover the country, the South Korean government initiated the Korean New Deal as a national development strategy, not only to recover the economy after the pandemic but also to lead global efforts in responding to structural changes.
The Korean New Deal comprises three pillar strategies: the Digital New Deal, the Green New Deal, and a Stronger Safety Net (The Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2020: 9). With the first strategy, the Digital New Deal, South Korea aims to enhance the nation's digital capabilities based on its competitive advantages in information and communication technology, thereby promoting innovation and dynamizing the entire economy. This strategy focuses on areas such as deeper integration of data, networks, and artificial intelligence into the economy, digitizing educational infrastructure, fostering the non-contact industry, and digitally transforming social infrastructure. Through this strategy, the South Korean government wants to transform the country into a smart nation, playing a central role in the data, network, and AI-driven digital transformation (The Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2020: 10).
Concurrently, the Green New Deal aims to achieve net-zero emissions while promoting the transition to a green and low-carbon economy. This strategy focuses on three main areas: green transformation of infrastructure, development of low-carbon and decentralized energy, and innovation in the green industry. With this strategy, the South Korean government wants to transform the country into a green nation, achieving a balance between people, nature, and growth through green transformation to become a responsible member of the international community (The Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2020: 10). Within this strategy, for the tourism sector, the government continues to maintain its strategy of developing ecotourism and green tourism.
With the Stronger Safety Net strategy, the government focuses on building a human-centered and socially inclusive nation. This strategy prioritizes employment, the social security system, and investment in human resources. Based on this strategy, the South Korean government aims to build a safe nation, investing in people to ensure sustainable social security and employment systems (The Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2020: 10, 13).
To realize these national strategies, the South Korean government has developed many specific projects for each strategy and clearly allocated the national budget to each project. Within the state management system, from central to local levels, all agencies participate in implementing national strategies, plans, and projects to achieve the green growth vision. The President serves as the Senior Secretary for Green Growth within the Presidential Committee on Green Growth – an agency that plays a key role in planning, coordinating, and evaluating the national green growth strategy, five-year plans, annual action plans, as well as the Korean New Deal. This committee has established a mechanism for cooperation among central and local governments and the private sector (Sang Dae Choi, 2013).
The participation of the private sector is considered a key factor in implementing national projects, strategies, and plans. To connect businesses, the scientific community, the public, information technology, and individuals and organizations with financial potential, the South Korean government established the Green Growth Private Sector consultative bodies, thereby obtaining expert advices and promoting active private sector participation in the green growth strategy (Sang Dae Choi, 2013).
Furthermore, to promote sustainable development, the Tourism Promotion Act, enacted in March 2009, began incorporating the concept and legal provisions for sustainable tourism, specifically detailed in Article 48-3 (Promotion of sustainable tourism development). Since then, subsequent revisions and additions to this Act have retained this provision while expanding and supplementing its content. In the version of the Tourism Promotion Act enacted in February 2024, Article 48-3 explicitly states: "The Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism may take necessary measures, such as providing information and financial support, etc. in order to promote the development of sustainable tourism resources, which can help minimize the use of energy and resources, cope with climate change, reduce environmental destruction, strike a balance with the lives of local residents, and achieve a win-win development with the local economy”. (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2024).
In January 2022, the South Korean government enacted the Framework Act on Sustainable Development. Paragraph 6, Article 23 of this Act clearly addresses sustainable tourism: "The State and local governments shall facilitate sustainable tourism by preserving, restoring, and using animal and plant habitats, ecologically outstanding natural environmental assets, and unique local cultural assets harmoniously as resources for tourism, by revitalizing the local economy, and by respecting the social values of each region". (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2022).
In general, to promote sustainable tourism development, the South Korean government has enacted numerous overall sustainable development policies and strategies, as well as specific policies and strategies for sustainable tourism. From central to local levels, from public to private organizations, and individuals in the community, all participate in building and developing the country, transforming South Korea into a smart, green, and safe nation.
3.2. Plans and action programs for sustainable tourism development in South Korea
From the early 21st century to the present, South Korea has implemented many specific plans and action programs to develop sustainable tourism, aiming to strike a balance between economic growth, environmental protection, and the preservation of cultural and social values. The South Korean government has enacted strategic plans and national action programs, attracting active participation from organizations, private enterprises, and local communities, contributing to promoting sustainable tourism development nationwide.
The strategic plans for sustainable tourism development formulated and implemented by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism are medium-term plans developed every five years, based on Article 3 of the Tourism Promotion Act, with the objective of laying the foundation for promoting and increasing the competitiveness of the tourism industry. In the latest plan (2023–2027), the South Korean government has set the vision of " Korea, an Attractive Tourist Destination with K-Culture" to revitalize the tourism industry after the decline caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. To realize this vision, they have outlined four specific action strategies: 1. Making Korea an attractive tourist destination sought by people all over the world; 2. Innovating the tourism industry by working with industry insiders; 3. Developing domestic tourism development and building a sustainable tourism industry ecosystem; 4. Ushering in the new era of local tourism for people to visit more often and stay longer (Ministry of Culture Sports and Tourism, 2023). Regarding sustainable tourism, they focus on developing green tourism, promoting environmentally friendly tourism activities, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, encouraging the use of renewable energy in accommodation facilities and tourism services; establishing ecotourism destinations in rural, mountainous, and remote island areas, combined with the "Stay and experience rural life in Korea" program to attract international visitors and distribute visitor flows away from major cities (Ministry of Culture Sports and Tourism, 2023).
Additionally, to prevent overtourism at popular tourist destinations such as Jeju Island, Gyeongbokgung Palace, and Bukchon Hanok Village, the South Korean government implements capacity management policies by limiting the number of daily visitors, flexibly adjusting opening hours, and implementing a pre-booking system. This is accompanied using real-time data systems to monitor visitor flow and adjust seasonal marketing strategies to disperse crowds (Khalid, 2024).
Furthermore, the South Korean government has also implemented a program to support businesses in developing sustainable tourism. Tour operators, hotels, and destinations that actively contribute to the goals of sustainable tourism development are awarded the Green Tourism Certification. Businesses that have received Green Tourism Certification are prioritized for promotion on Korea Tourism Organization platforms and receive financial support to improve facilities and train personnel. Thanks to this program, many hotels and guesthouses in South Korea are adopting green measures, including energy-efficient design, water conservation, and waste reduction initiatives (Korea Tourism Organization, 2022).
The South Korean government also organizes education and awareness-raising programs for local communities. They have recognized that one of the key elements of sustainable tourism is active community participation. Therefore, they have developed training programs on ecotourism organizing skills for residents, helping them become tour guides, accommodation owners, or participate in the sustainable tourism service supply chain. The government also organizes regular conferences, meetings with local authorities to integrate tourism into rural development planning and cultural preservation. The organization of training and fostering skill development programs for those working in the tourism sector is specifically regulated in the Tourism Promotion Act (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2024).
Moreover, based on the development of science, technology, and modern technology, South Korea has been implementing digital transformation and smart tourism development. The South Korean government has quickly applied the achievements of digital technology to sustainable tourism development. As early as 2011, the country's official tourism application, VisitKorea, has been employed. They have implemented digital maps, automatic QR code guides, and information kiosks in various languages, helping tourists access information easily while reducing the need for printed materials. The application of artificial intelligence, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR) technologies in tourism products and services helps create virtual tourism experiences, minimizing physical impacts on heritage and natural environments. An example is the intelligent recreation of 19th-century Incheon's history and scenery using AR and VR technology, allowing visitors to hear vivid stories while exploring Incheon's historical sites and scenic spots (Research Office, 2025).
In early 2020, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of South Korea launched a project to build smart tourism cities, providing funding and necessary conditions and means for local governments to promote public-private cooperation models in integrating advanced technology with tourism services at crucial destinations. Among them, Incheon city is at the pioneer of this project (implemented from September 2020). To date, nine smart tourism cities have been built nationwide, such as Gyeongju, Cheongju, Yeosu, and Daegu… (Research Office, 2025).
According to Park, Lee, Lee, and Reisinger (2022), South Korea has also implemented many environmentally friendly tourism development projects. They have been investing in green tourism projects, such as creating ecological parks and developing sustainable tourism programs. A typical example is on Jeju Island, where the government encourages tourists to use bicycles and electric vehicle rental services to reduce car traffic.
In general, after nearly 20 years of sustainable tourism development, along with the "Low Carbon, Green Growth" policies and strategies announced by President Lee Myung-Bak in 2008, South Korea has achieved significant accomplishments in the field of sustainable tourism. And currently, the South Korean government continues to implement many programs and projects for sustainable tourism development at both national and local levels.
4. Valuable lessons for Vietnam in developing sustainable tourism
Based on South Korea's policies, strategies, and action programs for sustainable tourism development has been mentioned above, there are some important lessons that can be drawn for developing sustainable tourism in Vietnam. The lessons can cover various aspects, including policy and legal framework for environmental protection and resource conservation, raising awareness of community about sustainable tourism, promoting community engagement in developing sustainable tourism, sustainable tourism management and digital transformation in tourism.
4.1. Policy and legal framework for environmental protection and resource conservation
Since the very early 21st century, South Korean government has identified green growth and sustainable development as long-term national strategies, with sustainable tourism as a crucial pillar. They have established many national strategies and master plans for sustainable tourism. For Vietnam to develop sustainable tourism, the government should build a comprehensive strategic framework for sustainable tourism, linked to national and regional master plans, to ensure consistency and synchronization, and to effectively leverage resources. Furthermore, to develop the country towards green and sustainable growth, South Korea has enacted the Low Carbon, Green Growth Act, the Framework Act on Sustainable Development, and the Tourism Promotion Act. These laws provide a clear basis for implementing sustainable tourism policies. Therefore, in Vietnam, for sustainable tourism development policies and programs to be more effective, the government needs to amend or supplement the current Tourism Law with specific content on sustainable tourism, serving as a legal basis for the implementation, management, and operation of green tourism, ecotourism, and community-based tourism programs and projects.
4.2. Raising awareness of community about sustainable tourism
South Korean government has organized numerous training programs related to sustainable tourism for various stakeholders, including management officials, tourism businesses, and residents. Vietnam should invest in and implement more training and development programs to enhance awareness and skills in organizing ecotourism activities and training green tour guides.
The South Korean government has also done an excellent job in communicating and educating about building and developing green tourism, raising community awareness, and encouraging tourists to join hands in building green tourism, protecting the environment, and preserving the nation's cultural and historical values. It is necessary for Vietnam to launch a national communication campaign on responsible tourism, train green tour guides, and develop a friendly tourist code of conduct for both domestic and international visitors. This should include specific measures and penalties for individuals and organizations that violate green and sustainable tourism regulations.
4.3. Promoting community engagement in developing sustainable tourism
South Korea has built a coordination model among central, local, private, and community entities to develop sustainable tourism. Thereby, establishing mechanisms and promoting multi-sectoral, multi-level, and multi-stakeholder cooperation is a good strategy for developing sustainable tourism in Vietnam. Particularly, the government should establish inter-agency task forces from central to local levels, promoting the coordinating role of ministries and departments such as Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; Ministry of Planning and Investment; etc., in strategic programs and plans for sustainable tourism development in Vietnam.
In addition, South Korea's Green Tourism Certification program serves as a clear model to attract and encourage the participation of businesses and communities in sustainable tourism development. Therefore, Vietnam should establish a set of green tourism criteria, recognize, and promote accommodation facilities, tour operators, and tourist areas that effectively meet the green tourism criteria set by the government. Funding a green ecosystem is a crucial factor in accelerating the progress of sustainable tourism in Vietnam.
4.4. Sustainable tourism management and digital transformation in tourism
To alleviate pressure on major cities and existing tourism hotspots, the South Korean government has actively promoted rural tourism development, establishing ecological gardens and parks. Vietnam possesses significant potential for rural tourism. Therefore, developing a system of green destinations and rural tourism is essential for sustainable tourism in Vietnam. There is a need for synchronized planning and the development of unique products that align with sustainable tourism standards to exploit and develop tourism potential in Vietnam's rural areas.
For key tourist destinations attracting many domestic and international visitors, South Korea has implemented various measures to regulate the daily and per-session visitor numbers. It is recommended that Vietnam should manage the tourist destinations and distribute visitor flows appropriately. It is needed to have real-time data management tools to regulate visitor flows, while simultaneously encouraging the development of new destinations in rural, mountainous, and island areas.
Digital transformation is considered one of the important factors that enabled South Korea to promote smart and sustainable tourism, enhancing visitor satisfaction and residents' experiences. Vietnam should have policies and programs to support localities and businesses in applying technology for comprehensive digital transformation in marketing, management, operation of tourism activities, and interaction with visitors.
4. Conclusion
With the trend of sustainable tourism development, South Korea stands as a prime example in planning and implementing sustainable tourism development policies and strategies linked to environmental protection, cultural preservation, and enhancing the quality of life for its people, while enriching visitor experiences. With a long-term vision, a comprehensive legal system, multi-sectoral coordination mechanisms, and active participation from various organizations and individuals in society, South Korea has gradually built a solid foundation for developing tourism in a sustainable, smart, and responsible direction. What South Korea has achieved is very valuable and worth for Vietnam to learn from in the process of national development and sustainable tourism development.
Vietnam is a country with rich and diverse tourism potential, but it still faces many challenges in balancing economic development with the protection of natural resources and the preservation of national cultural values and identity. In a global context where sustainable values are increasingly important, Vietnam needs to quickly formulate comprehensive and practical tourism development strategies, closely linked to the country's realities, mobilizing social resources, thereby contributing to environmental protection, improving the quality of life, and simultaneously building Vietnam's image as an attractive, friendly, and responsible destination on the world tourism map.
Hoang Minh Phu - Nguyen Duy Hai
References
- Bramwell, B., & Lane, B. (1993). Sustainable Tourism: An Evolving Global Approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1(1), 1-5. doi:10.1080/09669589309450696
- Friedlingstein, P., O'Sullivan, M., Jones, M. W., Andrew, R. M., Hauck, J., Olsen, A., . . . Zaehle, S. (2020). Global Carbon Budget 2020. Earth System Science Data, 12(4). doi:10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020
- Global Green Growth Institute. (2015). Korea's Green growth experiences: Process, outcomes and lessons learned: Global Green Growth Institute.
- Global Sustainable Tourism Council. (2023). GSTC Standard-Setting Manual: Global Sustainable Tourism Council.
- Jaeyeon Choe, & Giang Phi. (2022). Sustainable tourism development in Vietnam: a critical review. e-Review of Tourism Research, 18(6), 803-819.
- Khalid, I. (2024). How South Korea is tackling overtourism without losing its charm.Retrieved from https://musliminsiders.com/how-south-korea-is-tackling-overtourism-without-losing-its-charm/. Accessed 15/07/2025.
- Kokalari, M. (2024). Tourism Surge Boosts Vietnam’s Economy. Retrieved from
- Korea Tourism Organization. About KTO.Retrieved from https://knto.or.kr/eng/Vision. Accessed 04/07/2025.
- Korea Tourism Organization. (2022). Annual Tourism Statistics and Reports. Korea Tourism Organization
- Ministry of Culture Sports and Tourism. (2023). Master Plan for Tourism Development 2023–2027 South Korea: Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism
- Ministry of Environment. (2009). Korea’s National Green Growth Strategy and Environmental Policy. Korea Environmental Policy Bulletin
- Ministry of Government Legislation. (2010). Framework act on low carbon, green growth. Korean Law Information Center
- Ministry of Government Legislation. (2022). Framework act on sustainable development. Korean Law Information Center
- Ministry of Government Legislation. (2024). Tourism promotion act. Korean Law Information Center
- Nguyen Xuan Khanh. (2024). Sustainable Tourism Development in Vietnam: Current Challenges, Government Initiatives and Pathways for Long-Term Sustainability. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 11(11), 99-104.
- Pan, Y., Birdsey, R. A., Fang, J., Houghton, R. A., Kauppi, P., Kurz, W. A., . . . Hayes, D. (2011). A Large and Persistent Carbon Sink in the World's Forests. Science, 333(6045), 988-993. doi:10.1126/science.1201609
- Park, C., Lee, S., Lee, C.-K., & Reisinger, Y. (2022). Volunteer tourists’ environmentally friendly behavior and support for sustainable tourism development using Value-Belief-Norm theory: Moderating role of altruism. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 25, 100712. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2022.100712
- Research Office. (2025). Promoting smart tourism in South Korea and Singapore. Legislative Council Secretariat.
- Sang Dae Choi. (2013). The green growth movement in the Republic of Korea: Option or necessity.
- The Ministry of Economy and Finance. (2020). The Korean New Deal: National Strategy for a Great Transformation: Government of the Republic of Korea.
- Tourism Information Technology Center. (2025). Vietnam Welcomes 14 Million International Visitors in 8 Months of 2025.Retrieved from https://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/en/post/21270. Accessed 30/07/2025.
- Twohig-Bennett, C., & Jones, A. (2018). The health benefits of the great outdoors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of greenspace exposure and health outcomes. Environmental Research, 166, 628-637. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2018.06.030
- World Tourism Organization. (2005). Making Tourism More Sustainable - A Guide for Policy Makers: World Tourism Organization.